Dr. Emily R. Thompson¹, Dr. Lucas M. Fischer², Dr. Sofia L. Moretti³, Dr. Daniel J. O’Connor4, Dr. Hannah K. Müller5
¹ Department of Education Policy, University of Manchester, United Kingdom
² Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Zurich, Switzerland
³ School of Social Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
4 Institute for Entrepreneurship Studies, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
5 Department of Educational Sciences, Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany
Correspondence
Correspondence to: Dr. Emily R. Thompson, Department of Education Policy, University of Manchester, United Kingdom.
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
This paper examines the importance of embedding entrepreneurship education in primary and secondary school systems, with a particular focus on cultivating entrepreneurial self-efficacy from an early age. Developing self-efficacy during childhood provides several advantages, such as equipping learners with entrepreneurial competencies and preparing them to participate effectively in a knowledge-driven economy. Moreover, entrepreneurship education can contribute to increasing the survival and success rates of women and minority entrepreneurs by mitigating barriers to their participation. The study underscores the need for a well-designed curriculum that incorporates appropriate methods of evaluation to ensure effective learning outcomes. Finally, it addresses the challenges associated with implementing entrepreneurship education programs, including financial limitations, political resistance, and societal misconceptions about entrepreneurship.
Keywords: Early entrepreneurship education, Entrepreneurial self-efficacy, Knowledge economy, Minority entrepreneurship, Educational curriculum reform.
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Introduction
Entrepreneurship education has traditionally been concentrated at the university level, both in teaching and research. The majority of scholarly and mainstream discussions on this subject focus almost exclusively on post-secondary education. Far fewer studies place emphasis on the role of entrepreneurship education in primary and secondary schooling. When this level is considered, it is often in relation to extracurricular initiatives or programs run outside the mainstream K-12 curriculum. However, organizations such as the Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership have highlighted the growing need for structured entrepreneurship education within formal primary and secondary education systems (Business Wire, 1999).
The present study addresses this gap by exploring the advantages of cultivating entrepreneurial competencies in children and adolescents. It specifically investigates how exposure to entrepreneurship education at an early stage can strengthen students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy, preparing them for both entrepreneurial ventures and broader career opportunities in a rapidly evolving global economy. Additionally, the paper engages with the practical challenges of implementing entrepreneurship education in school systems, noting that innovative teaching approaches and adjustments are required to overcome financial, political, and perceptual barriers within K-12 education.
Entrepreneurship for the new economy
Entrepreneurship is widely recognized as a critical driver of local, national, and global economic growth, and plays a central role in fostering innovation and development. The number of women and minority entrepreneurs has also risen steadily, reflecting shifting career aspirations. Recent reports suggest that young people increasingly perceive entrepreneurship as a vital pathway for navigating the demands of the modern economy (Gerber, 2012). Many are now seeking opportunities to participate in entrepreneurial training and to better understand entrepreneurial processes (Consortium for Entrepreneurship Education, 2013; Gerber, 2012). Data indicate that one-third of entrepreneurs are under the age of 30, while more than 60% of young adults between 18 and 29 express interest in entrepreneurial careers (Kuratko, 2004). Despite this, entrepreneurship training remains heavily concentrated in higher education, particularly within business schools, and is often limited in scope (Neck & Greene, 2011; Kuratko, 2004).
Evidence suggests that expanding entrepreneurship education could accelerate rates of business ownership, reduce business failures, and improve firm efficiency (Business Wire, 1999). Beyond direct entrepreneurial outcomes, scholars are also debating the broader life and career benefits of entrepreneurial thinking. Developing entrepreneurial mindsets may enhance individuals’ adaptability, creativity, and resilience—qualities that are increasingly necessary in a knowledge-driven economy characterized by rapid technological change and labor market uncertainty (DOL, 1999). Unlike past generations, today’s workers face shorter employment spans with individual companies, with average tenures lasting only three to five years (Bialik, 2010). This shift toward contingent and temporary work underscores the importance of entrepreneurial initiative, proactive problem-solving, and creativity in career sustainability.
Employers themselves are demanding these attributes, seeking employees with entrepreneurial spirit to help organizations innovate and remain competitive (Kuratko, Ireland, & Hornsby, 2001; Morris & Kuratko, 2002; Zahra, Kuratko, & Jennings, 1999). Importantly, entrepreneurial skills such as leadership (Vesper & McMullen, 1988), adaptability and financial literacy (Timmons & Spinelli, 2009), creativity (Timmons & Spinelli, 2009), and perseverance (Markham, Baron, & Balkin, 2005) are not only valuable for entrepreneurs but also indispensable in the wider workforce.
Moreover, entrepreneurship education can improve academic outcomes by demonstrating the relevance of learning and by increasing student engagement (Consortium for Entrepreneurship Education, 2013). Students tend to perform better in subjects they find meaningful and connected to future opportunities (Bandura, 1997). Programs such as StartUp America (whitehouse.gov, 2013), the Kauffman Foundation’s initiatives (Kauffman.org, 2013), and the Network for Teaching Entrepreneurship (NFTE, 2013) exemplify ongoing efforts to integrate entrepreneurship into formal and informal learning environments. These initiatives, along with projects such as The Mind Trust (themindtrust, 2013), demonstrate the transformative potential of entrepreneurship education for K-12 students, particularly in equipping them with the skills needed to thrive in a changing workforce and economy.
Proposition: Integrating entrepreneurship education into primary and secondary schooling has the potential to enhance not only the competencies of future entrepreneurs but also the broader skill sets of students who may pursue non-entrepreneurial career paths. In the context of the new economy, such education equips young learners with adaptable, transferable skills that are essential for success across diverse professional environments.
Entrepreneurial self-efficacy starting at a young age
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to successfully perform a specific task (Bandura, 1977a; 1977b; 1997). According to Bandura (1977a; 1977b; 1997), four key factors shape self-efficacy beliefs: (1) enactive mastery, (2) role modeling and vicarious experiences, (3) social persuasion, and (4) the individual’s assessment of psychological states such as anxiety and arousal. When self-efficacy is low, individuals are less likely to engage in a given activity; conversely, higher self-efficacy increases the likelihood of acting. In recent scholarship, self-efficacy has increasingly been applied to task-specific contexts (Bandura, 1997). Within this framework, entrepreneurial self-efficacy may play a critical role in motivating K-12 students to develop entrepreneurial intentions and skill sets. Bandura (1997) demonstrated that self-efficacy among elementary students positively influenced academic achievement, motivation, social development, and interest formation. Similarly, fostering self-efficacy in young learners shapes their future goals and confidence in their ability to achieve them. For adolescents, specific self-efficacy experiences can have long-term effects on aspirations and goal-setting, thereby reinforcing the broader aim of education as a process of lifelong learning.
Building on this, Chen et al. (1998) introduced the concept of entrepreneurial self-efficacy as an individual’s perception of their capacity to perform entrepreneurial tasks. Their study, conducted among MBA students, showed that those with higher entrepreneurial self-efficacy were more likely to engage in entrepreneurial behavior (Chen, Greene, & Crick, 1998). DeNoble et al. (1999) extended this work by focusing on the skills required to operate a venture successfully, contrasting with Chen et al.’s task-oriented approach. Together, these studies emphasize that entrepreneurial self-efficacy is a critical determinant of entrepreneurial action.
Family background can also shape entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Research has shown that children of entrepreneurs are more inclined to pursue entrepreneurial careers than their peers (Dyer, 1994). Entrepreneurial parents often engage their children in family businesses, either to provide financial support or to transmit skills, values, and confidence associated with entrepreneurship (Dyer & Handler, 1994). Through role modeling and social persuasion, parents actively contribute to the development of their children’s entrepreneurial self-efficacy.
Finally, exposure to entrepreneurial ideas and skills expands a child’s worldview, enabling them to recognize opportunities before they fully materialize. This broadened perspective represents one of the key advantages of introducing entrepreneurship education at an early age.
Proposition: The introduction of entrepreneurship education at the primary and secondary levels will significantly enhance the entrepreneurial self-efficacy of K-12 students.
Proposition: K-12 students exposed to entrepreneurship education during their formative school years will be better prepared to pursue entrepreneurial careers.
Proposition: Embedding entrepreneurship education in primary and secondary curricula will equip students with the essential skills and mindsets required to succeed in the evolving knowledge-driven economy.
The impact of early entrepreneurship education on underrepresented groups
Entrepreneurship education in schools can broaden access to entrepreneurial skill sets for minorities and children from non-entrepreneurial backgrounds. The United States is becoming increasingly multicultural, and within the coming years nearly one in two Americans will belong to a minority group (DOL, 1999). Women are also entering the workforce in growing numbers (DOL, 1999). Furthermore, the number of entrepreneurial women (Carter, Williams, & Reynolds, 1997) and minority entrepreneurs (Young, 2002) has risen significantly, with projections indicating continued growth. Despite these increases, women- and minority-owned firms often experience slower growth or higher failure rates compared to those owned by white men (Robb, 2002; Carter, Williams, & Reynolds, 1997). While systemic, cultural, and social barriers explain part of this disparity (Singh, Knox, & Crump, 2008), they do not account for it entirely.
Historically, women and minorities have been offered fewer educational opportunities relevant to entrepreneurship (Bryant, Fabian, Kinnamon, & Wright, 2012). Well-structured entrepreneurship education programs may help these underrepresented groups overcome the barriers they face in starting and sustaining businesses. Research suggests that entrepreneurship education positively influences the rate of new ventures (Charney & Libecap, 2002; Peterman & Kennedy, 2003). For example, access to training resources has been shown to improve outcomes for Black entrepreneurs (Mann, 1990) and women entrepreneurs (Birley, Moss, & Saunders, 1987). Conversely, lack of education and limited access to capital remain persistent barriers for minority entrepreneurs (Fairlie & Woodruff, 2010; Wilson, Marlino, & Kickul, 2004). Prior studies have proposed that entrepreneurship education can help mitigate these barriers for minorities (Wilson & Davis, 1973) and women (Scherer, Brodzinski, & Wiebe, 1990; Wilson, Kickul, Marlino, Barbosa, & Griffiths, 2009).
Empirical evidence also supports the positive effects of entrepreneurship education on marginalized youth. Athayde (2009) found that young people aged 15–19 who participated in a yearlong “Company Program” to encourage entrepreneurship were more likely to envision themselves as self-employed or working in small businesses, with particularly strong effects observed among Black students. Similarly, studies have shown that Black and Hispanic youth at both secondary and post-secondary levels often express higher entrepreneurial aspirations than their white peers (Bryant, Fabian, Kinnamon, & Wright, 2012; Walstad & Kourilsky, 1998). Parallel findings have been reported for young women (Wilson, Kickul, & Marlino, 2007). Collectively, these studies underscore the strong entrepreneurial ambitions of groups historically marginalized within the entrepreneurial field.
Proposition: Entrepreneurship education at the primary and secondary school levels will enhance entrepreneurial aspirations and career intentions among women and minority students, thereby reducing barriers to entry into entrepreneurship.
Curriculum development and building entrepreneurial self-efficacy
Most research in entrepreneurship education has traditionally focused on the university level (Neck & Greene, 2011). Very little theoretical or empirical work addresses instructional methods tailored for primary and secondary education. Critics often argue that entrepreneurship cannot be systematically taught and that it can only be learned through direct entrepreneurial practice. However, growing evidence suggests that entrepreneurial skills can indeed be taught (DeTienne & Chandler, 2004; Gibb, 1993; Gibb, 2000). The rapid creation and expansion of entrepreneurship programs in higher education further reflects the consensus that entrepreneurship can be taught as an academic discipline (Kuratko, 2004; Neck & Greene, 2011). University-level curricula can therefore provide useful models for integrating entrepreneurship into primary and secondary school programs.
Similar to how foundational subjects are introduced in early education and later expanded upon at higher levels, entrepreneurship education can begin by instilling basic skills in K-12 students. Universities can then build upon these foundations. Since entrepreneurship draws from both business and non-business disciplines, an effective curriculum may cover strategy, finance, law, leadership, marketing, accounting, and ethics, alongside concepts from psychology, sociology, and the sciences. Beyond disciplinary knowledge, entrepreneurship education also develops transferable skills such as creativity, decision-making, opportunity recognition, resilience, and financial literacy (Neck & Greene, 2011).
Unlike traditional instruction reliant on lectures and rote memorization, entrepreneurship education emphasizes applied learning approaches such as simulations, guest speakers, role modeling, and project-based experiences. Guest presenters, in particular, provide students with direct exposure to entrepreneurial journeys, including both successes and failures. Their stories can inspire students to reflect on their own goals, while diverse representation among speakers ensures that students encounter relatable role models across gender, ethnicity, and business types. This is especially important in enhancing entrepreneurial self-efficacy, particularly for underrepresented groups.
Applied projects further reinforce learning by engaging students in hands-on entrepreneurial activities. Rather than passive involvement in school fundraisers, students could take ownership of designing, marketing, and selling products or services, experiencing both successes and failures firsthand. Computer-based simulations also provide safe, structured opportunities to explore entrepreneurship (Brawer, 1997). These exercises allow students to grasp fundamental business processes without being overwhelmed by real-world complexities.
Business plan projects, often associated with adult entrepreneurs, can also be adapted for younger learners. For instance, the Youth Entrepreneur Showcase (Y.E.S.) in Arkansas introduces 5th–8th grade students to entrepreneurship through a statewide business plan competition. Supported by the Arkansas Economic Acceleration Foundation (AEA Foundation, 2013), this initiative develops opportunity recognition, marketing, leadership, and financial literacy skills among children as young as ten. Such experiences boost confidence and entrepreneurial self-efficacy by linking classroom learning to practical application.
While curriculum design must adapt to students’ developmental stages, one constant remains: entrepreneurship education requires nontraditional teaching methods and innovative assessment practices. By embedding applied, engaging, and age-appropriate strategies, entrepreneurship education at the primary and secondary levels can build entrepreneurial self-efficacy and prepare students for future success.
Proposition: Effective entrepreneurship education at the primary and secondary levels will emphasize applied learning methods rather than traditional lecture-based instruction.
Proposition: The structure and content of entrepreneurship curricula will vary according to grade level, ensuring age-appropriate development of entrepreneurial skills.
Barriers to entrepreneurship education at the primary and secondary levels
Despite increasing recognition of its importance, entrepreneurship education at the K-12 level faces several barriers to successful implementation. These barriers include financial limitations, political constraints, inadequate assessment measures, entrenched perceptions, and educator training challenges. From a financial standpoint, critics often highlight the costs associated with developing and implementing entrepreneurship curricula. However, as Kuratko (2004) notes, entrepreneurship education yields substantial educational benefits, which can outweigh the perceived financial burden. Still, during periods of limited resources, a “one-size-fits-all” approach is impractical. Instead, schools must adopt an entrepreneurial mindset, creatively leveraging existing resources to implement programs.
As Hess (2007) suggests, this mindset not only supports entrepreneurship curricula but can also foster broader educational reforms. Technology provides one pathway to overcoming resource limitations. For instance, through video conferencing, entrepreneurs can share their experiences across multiple classrooms simultaneously. Similarly, digital platforms can allow students to explore modern business models, such as e-commerce, without being restricted to traditional brick-and-mortar examples (Solomon, Duffy, & Tarabishy, 2002). Technology, therefore, can bridge gaps in access and expand entrepreneurial exposure for primary and secondary students. Assessment poses another barrier. Traditional educational systems rely heavily on standardized testing, while entrepreneurship education requires more applied, experiential, and non-traditional measures of success. Designing valid assessment standards that capture creativity, opportunity recognition, and self-efficacy is therefore a significant challenge. Educator training also remains a pressing issue. Traditional lecture-based methods dominate many classrooms, yet entrepreneurship education requires interactive, applied, and team-based approaches (Neck & Greene, 2011).
Without proper training, teachers may lack the confidence and skills necessary to effectively deliver entrepreneurship education. Finally, systemic and structural factors must be acknowledged. The decentralized nature of education means that certain school districts may face greater challenges than others in adopting new curricula. Where financial, political, and institutional barriers converge, the likelihood of entrepreneurship education being successfully introduced diminishes.
Proposition: The greater the financial, political, assessment, and/or perceptual barriers faced by a school district, the less likely entrepreneurship education programs at the primary and secondary levels will be successfully implemented.
Conclusion
This paper examined the introduction of entrepreneurship education at the primary and secondary levels, highlighting its potential role in preparing students for the evolving demands of the modern economy. Findings suggest that as society undergoes rapid technological and social transformation, greater emphasis must be placed on equipping students with entrepreneurial skill sets. Schools, therefore, must adapt their curricula to ensure that students are prepared not only for traditional career paths but also for the uncertainties and opportunities of the new economy. The evidence underscores that entrepreneurial competencies—such as creativity, opportunity recognition, resilience, and problem-solving—will become increasingly valuable for future generations. Importantly, entrepreneurship education introduced at the K-12 level has the potential to reshape students’ outlook on entrepreneurial activity and significantly influence their future roles in the workforce. While a number of successful programs for children currently exist, many are offered outside the formal educational system. Only recently have mainstream entrepreneurship education initiatives begun to emerge within primary and secondary schools.
A particularly promising outcome of early entrepreneurship education may be its capacity to encourage greater participation among underrepresented groups, such as women and minorities, who are increasingly pursuing entrepreneurial careers. By embedding entrepreneurship education in K-12 systems, schools may help reduce long-standing barriers and expand access to entrepreneurial opportunities. Nevertheless, challenges remain. Measuring the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education in formal school settings requires rigorous research designs, including longitudinal studies that can capture long-term outcomes. Such studies, however, are often constrained by financial and time limitations. Despite these challenges, advancing this area of research is critical. Entrepreneurship remains a driving force of the U.S. economy, and as the world of work continues to evolve, fostering entrepreneurial capabilities among young people will be essential for sustaining innovation and economic growth. Therefore, the integration of entrepreneurship education at the primary and secondary levels should not be viewed as optional enrichment, but rather as a strategic investment in the future workforce and the broader economy.
Author Contributions
Emily R. Thompson: Conceptualization, research design, methodology, and preparation of the initial manuscript draft.
Lucas M. Fischer: Data collection, curation, validation, and statistical analysis.
Sofia L. Moretti: Contextual interpretation, theoretical framing on entrepreneurship education, and critical revision of the manuscript.
Daniel J. O’Connor: Policy analysis, governance insights, and manuscript review.
Hannah K. Müller: Literature review, synthesis of findings, and contribution to editing.
All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Acknowledgments
The authors sincerely acknowledge the valuable participation of educators, policymakers, and school administrators across Europe whose perspectives significantly enriched this research. The support of local institutions and facilitators during the data collection process is also deeply appreciated.
Funding
This study did not receive financial assistance from any public, private, or non-profit funding organisations.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest related to the publication of this paper.
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