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Abstract
In the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR or Industry 4.0), vast amounts of data are generated from diverse sources such as the Internet of Things (IoT), cybersecurity, mobile devices, business operations, social media, and healthcare systems. Effectively analyzing this wealth of data to develop intelligent and automated applications requires expertise in artificial intelligence (AI), with machine learning (ML) at its core. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of various ML algorithms—including supervised, unsupervised, semi-supervised, and reinforcement learning—and highlights deep learning as a powerful subset capable of processing large-scale data. We discuss the foundational principles of these techniques and demonstrate their applicability across numerous real-world domains such as cybersecurity, smart cities, healthcare, e-commerce, and agriculture. Additionally, we identify key challenges and outline promising directions for future research. This study aims to serve as a valuable resource for researchers, industry professionals, and decision-makers seeking technical insights into leveraging machine learning for practical applications.
Aims and Scope
SN Computer Science is a broad-based, peer-reviewed journal that publishes original research across all disciplines of computer science, including various interdisciplinary aspects.
The journal welcomes submissions on a wide range of topics, including but not limited to:
Artificial Intelligence
Robotics
Machine Learning
Computer Vision
Pattern Recognition
Image Processing
Computer Graphics
Human-Computer Interface
Document and Handwriting Processing
Video Technologies
Biometrics and Computer Forensics
Soft Computing
Brain Computing
Quantum Computing
Information Retrieval
Internet Computing and Data Mining
Theoretical Computer Science: Logic, Algorithms, and Complexity
Automated Proofs and Formal Verification
Computational Geometry
Information Theory
Speech and Signal Processing
Algorithms and Data Structures
Programming Languages
Software Engineering
Computer Architecture
Computer and Communication Networks
Computer and Network Performance
Modeling and Simulation
Energy Consumption and Harvesting in Computers & Networks
Green ICT
Computer and Network Security/Privacy
Cryptography
High Performance Computing
Parallel Computing and Architecture
Distributed and Cloud Computing
Social Networks
Database Systems and Theory
Computers and Networks in Supply Chains and Manufacturing
Computers and Networks for Health Systems
Computational Biology and Bioinformatics
Cyber-Physical Systems
Internet of Things (IoT)
Mathematical Programming and Combinatorial Optimization
Economics and Computation
SN Computer Science publishes original research papers as well as hardware and software architecture studies, survey and review articles. All papers are evaluated based on scientific content. Submissions are screened for research and publication ethics prior to peer review. The journal emphasizes sound science and considers submissions both directly and through referrals from Springer Nature’s computer science journal portfolio.
Peer Review Policy
SN Computer Science follows a single-blind peer review process, requiring a minimum of two reviews for each article. All original research articles undergo review by two subject experts. Reviewers are selected by the Editor-in-Chief and Associate Editors from a list of invited experts or their professional networks. These reviewers are recognized national and international authorities on the subject. In cases of conflicting reviews, a third review is sought. Associate Editors support the Editor-in-Chief by managing assigned manuscripts independently and without conflict of interest. They ensure timely publication and oversee ethical and scientific standards of the journal.
Meet the Editorial team of Computing and Cyber Technologies
Editors-in-Chief
Dr. Umapada Pal, PhD, (FIAPR), Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
Dr. Chau Yuen, PhD, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Prof. Jun Zhou, PhD, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
A) Distinguished Members
Prof. Rama Chellappa, PhD, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, USA
Dr. Anthony Ephremides, PhD, Electrical and Computer Engineering, Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, USA
Prof. Carlo Ghezzi, PhD, Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Prof. Fausto Giunchiglia, PhD, Dipartimento di Ingegneria e Scienza dell’Informazione, University di Trento, Italy
Prof. Josef Kittler, PhD, University of Surrey, UK
Prof. Giovanni De Micheli, PhD, Institute of Electrical Engineering, EPFL, Switzerland
Prof. Yoshihiko Nakamura, PhD, Department of Mechano-informatics, University of Tokyo, Japan
Prof. Alex Nicolau, PhD, Center for Embedded Computer Systems, University of California, USA
Prof. Harold Vincent Poor, PhD, Department of Electrical Engineering, Princeton University, USA
Dr. Sartaj Sahni, PhD, Computer and Information Sciences and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
Dr. Metin Sitti, PhD, Director, Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany
Prof. Albert Y. Zomaya, PhD, Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Engineering, Sydney University, Australia
Prof. Muhammad Naveed, PhD, Principal Applied Scientist at Amazon Web Services (AWS), Seattle, WA, United States
Partner Editors
Prof. Chetan Arora, PhD, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
Dr. Brojeshwar Bhowmick, PhD, TCS Research and Innovation, Kolkata, India
Prof. Parag Chaudhuri, PhD, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai, India
Dr. Jin Song Dong, PhD, Deputy Head, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Prof. Aniko Ekart, PhD, Associate Dean for Postgraduate Programmes for the School of Engineering and Applied Science, Aston University, UK
Prof. Conor Ryan, PhD, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
Prof. Joaquim B L Filipe, PhD, Professor of the School of Technology of the Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal (EST-Setúbal), Portugal
Prof. Davide Grossi, PhD, Associate professor in Multi-Agent Decision making at the Bernoulli Institute for Mathematics, Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence of the University of Groningen, Netherlands
Dr. Zhe Hou, PhD, Griffith University, Australia
Dr. Masoumeh Izadi, PhD, Television Content Analytics, Singapore
Dr. Sagar Juneja, PhD, Chitkara University, India
Dr. Vasudevan Lakshminarayanan, PhD, Theoretical and Experimental Epistemology Laboratory (TEEL), University of Waterloo, Canada
Prof. Miguel Felix Mata Rivera, PhD, Laboratorio de Inteligencia GeoEspacial y Cómputo Móvil, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, UPIITA, Mexico
Dr. Stuart Rubin, PhD, Fellow, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific (SSC-Pacific), USA
Dr. Rajnish Sharma PhD, Chitkara University, Himachal Pradesh, India
Prof. Layth Sliman, PhD, Research professor with EFREI, Europe
Prof. Ivor Tsang, PhD, Professor of Artificial Intelligence, University of Technology Sydney (UTS), Australia
Prof. Wei Qi Yan, PhD, Center for Robotics and Vision (CeRV), Auckland University of Technology (AUT), New Zealand
Section Editors
Section I– Al, Machine Learning and Computer Vision
Prof. Jun Zhou, PhD, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia (also Editor in Chief)
Section II-Emerging Trends in Sensors, IoT and Smart Systems
Dr. Saraju P. Mohanty, PhD, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of North Texas, USA
Prof. Himanshu Thapliyal, PhD, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
Section III– Innovation and Technology in Education
Dr. Billy Wong, PhD, Acting Director, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong
Prof. Reggie Kwan, PhD, Provost, The Open University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Prof. Kam Cheong Li, PhD, Director of Research Office, The Open University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Prof. Fu Lee Wang, PhD, Dean of School of Science and Technology, The Open University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Section IV– Innovation in Blockchain and Distributed Ledgers
Prof. Laura Ricci, PhD, Department of Computer Science, University of Pisa, Italy
Prof. Mohammad Hammoudeh, PhD, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK
Prof. Damiano Di Francesco Maesa, PhD, University of Cambridge, UK
Section V– Quantum Computing and Emerging Technologies
Prof. Himanshu Thapliyal, PhD, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
Prof. Saraju P. Mohanty, PhD, University of North Texas, USA
Section VI– Combinatorial Methods and Models in System Testing
Prof. Dimitris Simos, PhD, SBA Research & Graz University of Technology, Austria
Prof. Franz Wotawa, PhD, Graz University of Technology, Austria
Prof. Rick Kuhn, MS, National Institute of Standards and Technology, USA
Prof. Angelo Gargantini, PhD, University of Bergamo, Italy
Dr. Raghu Kacker, PhD, National Institute of Standards and Technology, USA
Dr. Ilias Kotsireas, PhD, Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Prof. Jeff Lei, PhD, University of Texas at Arlington, USA
Section VII– Dependable Cyber-Physical Systems and Cyber Security
Dr. Deepak Puthal, PhD, Khalifa University, UAE
Prof. Niranjan K Ray, PhD, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, India
SECTION VIII- Digital Ecosystems
Prof. Richard Chbeir, PhD, University Pau & Pays Adour, France
Prof. Yannis Manolopoulos, PhD, Open University of Cyprus, Cyprus
Associate Editors
Dr. Muhammad Afaq, PhD, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Saudi Arabia
Prof. Hojjat Adeli, PhD, The Ohio State University, USA
Dr. Sonali Agarwal, PhD, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Allahabad, India
Prof. Alireza Alaei, PhD, in Computer Science, Southern Cross University, Australia
Prof. Dr. Elisabeth André, PhD, Department of Computer Sciences, University of Augsburg, Germany
Dr. Mohammad Awrangjeb, PhD, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
Prof. Dr. George Azzopardi, PhD, MSc, Bernoulli Institute for Mathematics, Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
Prof. Christel Baier, PhD, Faculty of Computer Science, The Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
Prof. Henri E Bal, PhD, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Computer Science, Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands
Prof. Xiao Bai, PhD, Professor, Beihang University, China
Prof. Wolf-Tilo Balke, PhD, MSc, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Informationssysteme, Germany
Prof. Subhadip Basu, PhD, Jadavpur University, India
Prof. Saumik Bhattacharya, PhD, Dept. of Electronics and Electrical Communication Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
Prof. Bernd Becker, PhD, Institute of Computer Science, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg
Dr. Loris Belcastro, PhD, Department of Informatics, Modeling, Electronics and Systems – University of Calabria, Rende, Italy
Dr. Gábor BELLA, PhD IMT Atlantique, France
Prof. Dr. Luca Benini, PhD, Integrated Systems Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
Prof. Johan van Benthem, PhD, Institute for Logic, Language and Computation, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Prof. Johannes Aldert Bergstra, PhD, Informatics Institute, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Prof. Michael Blumenstein, PhD, BIT (Hons), University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Prof. Dr. Ivan Bratko, PhD, Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Prof. Alceu de Souza Britto Jr, PhD, Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná, Brazil
Prof. Xuelin Cao, PhD, Xidian University, Xi’an, China
Dr. Ruichu Cai, PhD, Guangdong University of Technology, China
Prof. Cristian S Calude, PhD, Department of Computer Science, The University of Auckland, New Zealand
Prof. Giuseppe Castagna, PhD, Research Institute on the Foundations of Computer Science, Université Paris Cité, France
Prof. Stefano Ceri, PhD, Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria,Italy
Dr. Hubert Cecotti, PhD, Department of Computer Science, College of Science and Mathematics, California State University, Fresno,USA
Dr. Chee Seng Chan, PhD, Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Dr. Sukalpa Chanda, PhD, Østfold University College, Norway
Dr. Jayasree Chakraborty, PhD, Dept. of Surgery (HPB Services), Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
Prof. Zhicong Chen, PhD, Fuzhou University, Fujian, China
Dr. Simon K.S. Cheung, PhD, MPA, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong, China
Dr. Lili Chen, PhD, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
Prof. Shaowu Cheng, PhD, Harbin Institute of Technology, China
Dr. Peng Cheng, PhD, La Trobe University, Australia
Dr. Ernesto Damiani, PhD, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy and Information Security Research Center, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi
Prof. Josep Diaz, PhD, Department of Computer Science, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain
Dr. Debi Prosad Dogra, PhD, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, IIT Bhubaneswar, India
Dr. Manfred Droste, PhD, Institute of Computer Science, University of Leipzig, Germany
Prof. Xishuang Dong, PhD, MSc, Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, Texas, USA
Prof. Xiaorong Ding, PhD, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China
Prof. Jun Du, PhD, University of Science and Technology of China, China
Dr. Anjan Dutta, PhD, MSc, University of Surrey, UK
Dr. Shiv Ram Dubey, PhD, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Allahabad, India
Prof. Bowen Du, PhD, Beihang University, Beijing, China
Prof. Johan Debayle, PhD, MINES Saint-Etienne, France
Prof. Dr. Thomas Eiter, PhD, Institut für Logic and Computation, TU Wien, Austria
Dr. Asif Ekbal, PhD, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, IIT Patna, India
Prof. Dr. Dieter W Fellner, PhD, Fraunhofer Institute for Computer Graphics Research IGD, Germany
Dr. Yaru Fu, PhD, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong SAR, China
Prof. Debasis Ganguly, PhD, MTech (CS), University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
Prof. Raffaele Giancarlo, PhD, University of Palermo, Italy
Dr. Ashish Ghosh, PhD, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
Prof. Kripabandhu Ghosh, PhD, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Prof. Zhong Guoqiang, PhD, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
Prof. Jozef Gruska, PhD, Faculty of Informatics, Masaryk University, Czech Republic
Prof. Song Guo, PhD, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Prof. Yi-Ke Guo, PhD, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Computing, Imperial College London, UK
Prof. Sunil Gupta, PhD, Associate Professor, Deakin University, Australia
Prof. Hailiang Huang, PhD, School of Information Management and Engineering, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Shanghai, China
Prof. Jon Yngve Hardeberg, PhD, Department of Computer Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
Dr. Naveed Ul Hassan, PhD, Lahore University of Management Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
Prof. Frank van Harmelen, PhD, Department of Computer Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Dr. Liang He, PhD, University of Colorado Denver, USA
Prof. Sean He, PhD, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Prof. Manuel Hermenegildo, PhD, IMDEA Software Institute, Spain
Prof. Annika Hinze, PhD, Department of Computer Science, The University of Waikato, New Zealand
Prof. Laurent Heutte, PhD, MSc in Computer Engineering, Université de Rouen Normandie, France
Prof. Tutut Herawan, PhD, Department of Research and Technology, STIPRAM Institute, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Prof. Donato Impedovo, PhD, MEng Computer Engineering, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Italy
Prof. Brian Kenji Iwana, PhD, Faculty of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Japan
Prof. Kazuo Iwama, PhD, RIMS, Kyoto University, Japan
Prof. Zeeshan Kaleem, PhD, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Saudi Arabia
Prof. Pritee Khanna, PhD, MSc, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Jabalpur, India
Prof. Janusz Kacprzyk, PhD, Intelligent Systems Laboratory, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland
Prof. Marek Karpinski, PhD, Hausdorff Center for Mathematics, Germany
Prof. Joost-Pieter Katoen, PhD, MSc, RWTH Aachen University, Germany and University of Twente, The Netherlands
Prof. Byung-Gyu Kim, PhD, Sookmyung Women’s University, Republic of Korea
Prof. Jan Willem Klop, PhD, Department of Theoretical Computer Science, Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands
Prof. Leif Kobbelt, Dr. rer. nat. Dr.-Ing. habil., MSc, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
Dr. Rajeev Kumar, Delhi Technological University, India
Dr. S. Srinivas Kumar, PhD, Dept. of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada, India
Prof. Hui Li, PhD, Jiangnan University, China
Prof. Xiaoying Liu, PhD, Zhejiang University of Technology, China
Dr. Billy Pik Lik Lau, PhD, MPhil, Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore
Dr. Kai Li, PhD, CISTER Research Centre, Portugal
Prof. Bin Li, PhD, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, China
Prof. Kim Guldstrand Larsen, PhD, Department of Computer Science, Aalborg University, Denmark
Prof. Pedro Larrañaga, PhD, Departamento de Inteligencia Artificial, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Prof. Maurizio Lenzerini, PhD, MSc, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Prof. Xuelong Li, PhD, Northwestern Polytechnical University, China
Prof. Yamin Li, PhD, Faculty of Computer and Information Sciences, Hosei University, Koganei, Tokyo, Japan
Prof. Alan Wee-Chung Liew, PhD, Griffith University, Australia
Prof. Jie Liu, PhD, Harbin Institute of Technology, School of Computer Science and Technology, China
Prof. Rafael Dueire Lins, PhD, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Brazil
Prof. Giuseppe Longo, Directeur des Recherches – CNRS, CNRS & Ecole Normale Supérieure, Paris, France
Prof. Yue LU, PhD, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
Prof. Ran Liu, PhD, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Fucheng, China
Dr. Jiajun Liu, PhD, CSIRO, Australia
Dr. Xi Li, PhD, Zhejiang University, Zhejiang, China
Prof. Manoj BS, PhD, MTech, Indian Institute of Space science and Technology (IIST), Trivandrum, India
Prof. Kleiber Michał, PhD, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland
Prof. Miodrag Mihaljević, PhD, Matematički Institut SANU, Serbia
Prof. Veljko M. Milutinovic, PhD, Department of Computer Engineering, School of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade
Prof. Ugo Montanari, PhD, Dipartimento di Informatica, Università di Pisa, Italy
Prof. Onur Mutlu, PhD, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
Dr. Jayanta Mukhopadhyay, PhD, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
Dr. Snehasis Mukherjee, PhD, Shiv Nadar Institutions of Eminence, Delhi NCR, India
Prof. Fabrizio Marozzo, PhD, MSc, University of Calabria, Italy
Dr. Suyel Namasudra, PhD, National Institute of Technology Agartala, India
Dr. Atul Negi, PhD, School of Computer and Information Sciences, University of Hyderabad, India
Prof. Wolfgang Nejdl, Institut für Verteilte Systeme, Leibniz University Hannover, Germany
Prof. Rocco De Nicola, PhD, IMT, Italy
Prof. Jean-Marc Ogier, PhD, Laboratoire Informatique, Image et Interaction (L3i), La Rochelle Université, France
Prof. Kaoru Ota, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Sciences and Informatics, Muroran Institute of Technology, Japan
Prof. Jinshan Pan, PhD, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, China
Prof. Sebastião Pais, PhD, Universidade da Beira Interior, Portugal
Prof. Hervé Panetto, PhD, MSc, Université de Lorraine, CNRS, CRAN, France
Dr. Sukomal Pal, PhD, Department of Computer Science and Engineering Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), India
Prof. Joao Paulo Papa, PhD, MSc, Sao Paulo State University, Brazil
Dr. Hemant Patil, PhD, Speech Research Lab, Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information and Communication Technology (DA-IICT), Gandhinagar, India
Prof. Goutam Paul, PhD, Cryptology and Security Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
Prof. Mario de Jesús Pérez Jiménez, PhD, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain
Prof. Dominique Perrin, PhD, Universite Gustave Eiffel, France
Prof. Dr. Tomaž Pisanski, PhD, Fakulteta za matematiko in fiziko Jadranska, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Prof. Ioannis Pratikakis, PhD, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Democritus University of Thrace, Greece
Dr. Mukesh Prasad, PhD, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Dr. Shitala Prasad, PhD, Institute for Infocomm Research, A*STAR, Singapore
Prof. Ishaani Priyadarshini, PhD, University of California Berkeley, USA
Prof. Priyadarshini, PhD, University of California Berkeley, USA
Prof. Yan Qin, PhD, MSc, Chongqing University, P.R. China
Prof. Mohammad Ashiqur Rahman, PhD, MS, and BS, Florida International University, United States
Prof. Kiran Raja, PhD, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway
Prof. Raghavendra Ramachandra, PhD, Department of Information Security and Communication Technology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway
Prof. Kaushik Roy, PhD, Dept. of Comp. Sc., West Bengal State University, India
Dr. Swalpa Kumar Roy, PhD, Master of Engineering, Alipurduar Government Engineering and Management College, West Bengal, India
Prof. Partha Pratim Roy, PhD, MS, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India
Prof. Wojciech Rytter, PhD, University of Warsaw, Poland
Dr. Badri N Subudhi, PhD, MTech, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India.
Prof. Davide Sangiorgi, PhD, Department of Computer Science, University of Bologna, Italy
Prof. KC Santosh, PhD, Department of Computer Science, University of South Dakota (USD), USA
Dr. Deepika Saxena, PhD, The University of Aizu, Japan
Prof. Constantine Stephanidis, PhD, Institute of Computer Science (ICS), Foundation for Research and Technology, Greece
Prof. Palaiahnakote Shivakumara, PhD, University of Salford, UK
Prof. Roman Słowiński, PhD, Institute of Computing Science, Poznań University of Technology, Poland
Prof. Dr. A.W.M. Smeulders, PhD, Faculty of Science, Informatics Institute, The Netherlands
Prof. Ljubisa Stankovic, PhD, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Montenegro, Montenegro
Prof. Per Stenström, PhD, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Göteborg, Sweden
Prof. Shin’ichi Satoh, PhD, MEng, National Institute of Informatics, Japan
Prof. Geng Sun, Ph.D., MSs, Jilin University, China
Prof. Lei Shu, PhD, MSc, Nanjing Agricultural University, China
Prof. Andrzej Tarlecki, PhD, University of Warsaw, Poland
Prof. Jarrod Trevathan, PhD, BSc (Hons), Griffith University, Australia
Prof. Shujuan Tian, PhD, Xiangtan University, China
Prof. Paul Michael Béla Vitányi, PhD, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Dr. Can Wang, PhD, School of Information and Communication Technology, Griffith University, Australia
Prof. Dongming Wang, PhD, Beihang University, Beijing, China and CNRS, France
Dr. Xi Wang, PhD, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Prof. Zheng Wang, PhD, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
Prof. Shuai Wang, PhD, MS, Southeast University, China
Dr. Sen Wang, PhD, University of Queensland, Australia
Prof. Ulrike Leopold-Wildburger, PhD, Institut für Statistik und Operations Research, Karl Franzens Universität Graz, Austria
Prof. Franz Wotawa, PhD, Institute for Software Technology, Graz University of Technology, Austria
Prof. Xiaojun Wu, PhD, Jiangnan University, China
Prof. Yan Wang, PhD, Sichuan University, China
Dr. Zhitao Xiao, PhD, Tianjin University, China
Dr. Guo-Sen Xie, PhD, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, China
Prof. Wei Qi Yan, PhD, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
Prof. Bo Yang, PhD,Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, China
Prof. Wang Yi, PhD, Department of Information Technology, Uppsala University, Sweden
Prof. Hongzhi Yin, PhD, The University of Queensland, Australia
Prof. Lisu Yu, PhD, Nanchang University, China
Dr. Xiaohan Yu, PhD, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
Prof. Linlin You, PhD, Sun Yat-Sen University, China
Prof. Yazhou Yao, PhD, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, China
Prof. Cairong Zhao, PhD, Tongji University, China
Prof. Franco Zambonelli, PhD, Dipartimento di Scienze e Metodi dell’Ingegneria, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
Prof. Jing Zhang, PhD, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
Prof. Hongliang Zhang, PhD, Peking University, Beijing, China
Dr. Peican Zhu, PhD, Northwestern Polytechnical University, China
Dr. Rui Zhu, PhD, MSc, Institute of High Performance Computing (IHPC), A*STAR, Singapore
Dr. Gexiang Zhang, PhD, MSc, School of Automation, Chengdu University of Information Technology, China
Prof. Yan-Ming Zhang, PhD, MSc, State Key Laboratory of Multimodal Artificial Intelligence Systems, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.R. China
Special Assignment Editors
Dr. Tapabrata Rohan Chakraborty, PhD, University College London, UK
Prof. Somnath Mukhopadhyay, PhD, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Assam University, Assam, India
Dr. Parvez Faruki, PhD, Head of Department Information Technology, AVPTI, Rajkot, India
Dr. Devki Nandan Jha, PhD, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
Prof. Zhenyong Zhang, PhD, Guizhou University, P.R. China
Prof. Wenqing Li, PhD, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi
Prof. Liang Zhao, PhD, National Engineering Research Center of Educational Big Data, Central China Normal University, China
Associate Editors of Sections
Dependable Cyber-Physical Systems and Cyber Security
Dr. Venkata Prasanth Yanambaka, PhD, Texas Woman’s University, USA
Dr. Santosh Kumar Nanda, PhD, Wipro Limited, Bangalore, India
Prof. Rashmi Ranjan Rout, PhD, National Institute of Technology Warangal, India
Emerging Trends in Sensors, IoT and Smart Systems
Prof. Mike Borowczak, PhD, University of Wyoming, USA
Dr. Peter Corcoran, PhD, National University of Ireland, Ireland
Prof. Srinivas Katkoori, PhD, University of South Florida, USA
Prof. Selcuk Kose, PhD, University of Rochester, USA
Prof. Fernando Pescador, PhD, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Prof. Yasuhiro Takahashi, PhD, Gifu University, Japan
Prof. Shingo Yamaguchi, Dr. Eng.,Yamaguchi University, Japan
Dr. Debajyoti Pal, PhD, MTech, School of Information Technology, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand
Prof. M. Tauhidur Rahman, PhD, MSc, Florida International University, United States
Dr. Amit Joshi, PhD, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Prof. Usha Mehta, PhD, Nirma University, Gujarat, India
Dr. Debanjan Das, PhD, International Institute of Information Technology, Naya Raipur, India
Prof. Eirini Eleni Tsiropoulou, PhD, University of New Mexico, United States
Prof. Nima Karimian, PhD, West Virginia University, United States
Prof. Hana Khamfroush, PhD, University of Kentucky, USA
Prof. Ajita Rattani, PhD, Wichita State University, USA
Prof. Venkanna Udutalapally, PhD, MTech, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, India
Quantum Computing and Emerging Technologies
Dr. Yuri Alexeev, PhD, Argonne National Laboratory, USA
Dr. Anindita Banerje, PhD, Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), India
Dr. Greg Byrd, PhD, North Carolina State University, USA
Prof. Ilya Safro, PhD, University of Delaware, USA
Prof. Shigeru Yamashita, PhD, Ritsumeikan University, Japan
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If available, please always include DOIs as full DOI links in your reference list (e.g. “https://doi.org/abc”).
If you are unsure, please use the full journal title.
To ensure objectivity and transparency in research and to ensure that accepted principles of ethical and professional conduct have been followed, authors should include information regarding sources of funding, potential conflicts of interest (financial or non-financial), informed consent if the research involved human participants, and a statement on welfare of animals if the research involved animals.
Authors should include the following statements (if applicable) in a separate section entitled “Compliance with Ethical Standards” when submitting a paper:
Please note that standards could vary slightly per journal dependent on their peer review policies (i.e. single or double blind peer review) as well as per journal subject discipline. Before submitting your article check the instructions following this section carefully.
The corresponding author should be prepared to collect documentation of compliance with ethical standards and send if requested during peer review or after publication.
The Editors reserve the right to reject manuscripts that do not comply with the above-mentioned guidelines. The author will be held responsible for false statements or failure to fulfill the above-mentioned guidelines.
Authors are requested to disclose interests that are directly or indirectly related to the work submitted for publication. Interests within the last 3 years of beginning the work (conducting the research and preparing the work for submission) should be reported. Interests outside the 3-year time frame must be disclosed if they could reasonably be perceived as influencing the submitted work. Disclosure of interests provides a complete and transparent process and helps readers form their own judgments of potential bias. This is not meant to imply that a financial relationship with an organization that sponsored the research or compensation received for consultancy work is inappropriate.
Editorial Board Members and Editors are required to declare any competing interests and may be excluded from the peer review process if a competing interest exists. In addition, they should exclude themselves from handling manuscripts in cases where there is a competing interest. This may include – but is not limited to – having previously published with one or more of the authors, and sharing the same institution as one or more of the authors. Where an Editor or Editorial Board Member is on the author list we recommend they declare this in the competing interests section on the submitted manuscript. If they are an author or have any other competing interest regarding a specific manuscript, another Editor or member of the Editorial Board will be assigned to assume responsibility for overseeing peer review. These submissions are subject to the exact same review process as any other manuscript. Editorial Board Members are welcome to submit papers to the journal. These submissions are not given any priority over other manuscripts, and Editorial Board Member status has no bearing on editorial consideration.
Interests that should be considered and disclosed but are not limited to the following:
Funding: Research grants from funding agencies (please give the research funder and the grant number) and/or research support (including salaries, equipment, supplies, reimbursement for attending symposia, and other expenses) by organizations that may gain or lose financially through publication of this manuscript.
Employment: Recent (while engaged in the research project), present or anticipated employment by any organization that may gain or lose financially through publication of this manuscript. This includes multiple affiliations (if applicable).
Financial interests: Stocks or shares in companies (including holdings of spouse and/or children) that may gain or lose financially through publication of this manuscript; consultation fees or other forms of remuneration from organizations that may gain or lose financially; patents or patent applications whose value may be affected by publication of this manuscript.
It is difficult to specify a threshold at which a financial interest becomes significant, any such figure is necessarily arbitrary, so one possible practical guideline is the following: “Any undeclared financial interest that could embarrass the author were it to become publicly known after the work was published.”
Non-financial interests: In addition, authors are requested to disclose interests that go beyond financial interests that could impart bias on the work submitted for publication such as professional interests, personal relationships or personal beliefs (amongst others). Examples include, but are not limited to: position on editorial board, advisory board or board of directors or other type of management relationships; writing and/or consulting for educational purposes; expert witness; mentoring relations; and so forth.
Primary research articles require a disclosure statement. Review articles present an expert synthesis of evidence and may be treated as an authoritative work on a subject. Review articles therefore require a disclosure statement. Other article types such as editorials, book reviews, comments (amongst others) may, dependent on their content, require a disclosure statement. If you are unclear whether your article type requires a disclosure statement, please contact the Editor-in-Chief.
Please note that, in addition to the above requirements, funding information (given that funding is a potential competing interest (as mentioned above)) needs to be disclosed upon submission of the manuscript in the peer review system. This information will automatically be added to the Record of CrossMark, however it is not added to the manuscript itself. Under ‘summary of requirements’ (see below) funding information should be included in the ‘Declarations’ section.
Summary of requirements
The above should be summarized in a statement and placed in a ‘Declarations’ section before the reference list under a heading of ‘Funding’ and/or ‘Competing interests’. Other declarations include Ethics approval, Consent, Data, Material and/or Code availability and Authors’ contribution statements.
Please see the various examples of wording below and revise/customize the sample statements according to your own needs.
When all authors have the same (or no) conflicts and/or funding it is sufficient to use one blanket statement.
Examples of statements to be used when funding has been received:
Examples of statements to be used when there is no funding:
Examples of statements to be used when there are interests to declare:
Non-financial interests: Author C is an unpaid member of committee Z.
Non-financial interests: Author A is on the board of directors of Y and receives no compensation as member of the board of directors.
Non-financial interests: none.
Non-financial interests: Author D has served on advisory boards for Company M, Company N and Company O.
Examples of statements to be used when authors have nothing to declare:
Authors are responsible for correctness of the statements provided in the manuscript. See also Authorship Principles. The Editor-in-Chief reserves the right to reject submissions that do not meet the guidelines described in this section.
Ethics approval
When reporting a study that involved human participants, their data or biological material, authors should include a statement that confirms that the study was approved (or granted exemption) by the appropriate institutional and/or national research ethics committee (including the name of the ethics committee) and certify that the study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards as laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. If doubt exists whether the research was conducted in accordance with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration or comparable standards, the authors must explain the reasons for their approach, and demonstrate that an independent ethics committee or institutional review board explicitly approved the doubtful aspects of the study. If a study was granted exemption from requiring ethics approval, this should also be detailed in the manuscript (including the reasons for the exemption).
Retrospective ethics approval
If a study has not been granted ethics committee approval prior to commencing, retrospective ethics approval usually cannot be obtained and it may not be possible to consider the manuscript for peer review. The decision on whether to proceed to peer review in such cases is at the Editor’s discretion.
Ethics approval for retrospective studies
Although retrospective studies are conducted on already available data or biological material (for which formal consent may not be needed or is difficult to obtain) ethics approval may be required dependent on the law and the national ethical guidelines of a country. Authors should check with their institution to make sure they are complying with the specific requirements of their country.
Ethics approval for case studies
Case reports require ethics approval. Most institutions will have specific policies on this subject. Authors should check with their institution to make sure they are complying with the specific requirements of their institution and seek ethics approval where needed. Authors should be aware to secure informed consent from the individual (or parent or guardian if the participant is a minor or incapable)
Cell lines
If human cells are used, authors must declare in the manuscript: what cell lines were used by describing the source of the cell line, including when and from where it was obtained, whether the cell line has recently been authenticated and by what method. If cells were bought from a life science company the following need to be given in the manuscript: name of company (that provided the cells), cell type, number of cell line, and batch of cells.
It is recommended that authors check the NCBI database for misidentification and contamination of human cell lines. This step will alert authors to possible problems with the cell line and may save considerable time and effort.
Further information is available from the International Cell Line Authentication Committee (ICLAC).
Authors should include a statement that confirms that an institutional or independent ethics committee (including the name of the ethics committee) approved the study and that informed consent was obtained from the donor or next of kin.
Research Resource Identifiers (RRID)
Research Resource Identifiers (RRID) are persistent unique identifiers (effectively similar to a DOI) for research resources. This journal encourages authors to adopt RRIDs when reporting key biological resources (antibodies, cell lines, model organisms and tools) in their manuscripts.
Examples:
Organism: Filip1tm1a(KOMP)Wtsi RRID:MMRRC_055641-UCD
Cell Line: RST307 cell line RRID:CVCL_C321
Antibody: Luciferase antibody DSHB Cat# LUC-3, RRID:AB_2722109
Plasmid: mRuby3 plasmid RRID:Addgene_104005
Software: ImageJ Version 1.2.4 RRID:SCR_003070
Clinical Trial Registration
The World Health Organization (WHO) definition of a clinical trial is “any research study that prospectively assigns human participants or groups of humans to one or more health-related interventions to evaluate the effects on health outcomes”. The WHO defines health interventions as “A health intervention is an act performed for, with or on behalf of a person or population whose purpose is to assess, improve, maintain, promote or modify health, functioning or health conditions” and a health-related outcome is generally defined as a change in the health of a person or population as a result of an intervention.
To ensure the integrity of the reporting of patient-centered trials, authors must register prospective clinical trials (phase II to IV trials) in suitable publicly available repositories. For example www.clinicaltrials.gov or any of the primary registries that participate in the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform.
The trial registration number (TRN) and date of registration should be included as the last line of the manuscript abstract.
For clinical trials that have not been registered prospectively, authors are encouraged to register retrospectively to ensure the complete publication of all results. The trial registration number (TRN), date of registration and the words ‘retrospectively registered’ should be included as the last line of the manuscript abstract.
Standards of reporting
SCI Index advocates complete and transparent reporting of biomedical and biological research and research with biological applications. Authors are recommended to adhere to the minimum reporting guidelines hosted by the EQUATOR Network when preparing their manuscript.
Exact requirements may vary depending on the journal; please refer to the journal’s Instructions for Authors.
Checklists are available for a number of study designs, including:
Randomised trials (CONSORT) and Study protocols (SPIRIT)
Observational studies (STROBE)
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) and protocols (Prisma-P)
Diagnostic/prognostic studies (STARD) and (TRIPOD)
Case reports (CARE)
Clinical practice guidelines (AGREE) and (RIGHT)
Qualitative research (SRQR) and (COREQ)
Animal pre-clinical studies (ARRIVE)
Quality improvement studies (SQUIRE)
Economic evaluations (CHEERS)
Summary of requirements
The above should be summarized in a statement and placed in a ‘Declarations’ section before the reference list under a heading of ‘Ethics approval’.
Please see the various examples of wording below and revise/customize the sample statements according to your own needs.
Examples of statements to be used when ethics approval has been obtained:
Examples of statements to be used for a retrospective study:
Examples of statements to be used when no ethical approval is required/exemption granted:
Authors are responsible for correctness of the statements provided in the manuscript. See also Authorship Principles. The Editor-in-Chief reserves the right to reject submissions that do not meet the guidelines described in this section.
All individuals have individual rights that are not to be infringed. Individual participants in studies have, for example, the right to decide what happens to the (identifiable) personal data gathered, to what they have said during a study or an interview, as well as to any photograph that was taken. This is especially true concerning images of vulnerable people (e.g. minors, patients, refugees, etc) or the use of images in sensitive contexts. In many instances authors will need to secure written consent before including images.
Identifying details (names, dates of birth, identity numbers, biometrical characteristics (such as facial features, fingerprint, writing style, voice pattern, DNA or other distinguishing characteristic) and other information) of the participants that were studied should not be published in written descriptions, photographs, and genetic profiles unless the information is essential for scholarly purposes and the participant (or parent/guardian if the participant is a minor or incapable or legal representative) gave written informed consent for publication. Complete anonymity is difficult to achieve in some cases. Detailed descriptions of individual participants, whether of their whole bodies or of body sections, may lead to disclosure of their identity. Under certain circumstances consent is not required as long as information is anonymized and the submission does not include images that may identify the person.
Informed consent for publication should be obtained if there is any doubt. For example, masking the eye region in photographs of participants is inadequate protection of anonymity. If identifying characteristics are altered to protect anonymity, such as in genetic profiles, authors should provide assurance that alterations do not distort meaning.
Exceptions where it is not necessary to obtain consent:
Consent and already available data and/or biologic material
Regardless of whether material is collected from living or dead patients, they (family or guardian if the deceased has not made a pre-mortem decision) must have given prior written consent. The aspect of confidentiality as well as any wishes from the deceased should be respected.
Data protection, confidentiality and privacy
When biological material is donated for or data is generated as part of a research project authors should ensure, as part of the informed consent procedure, that the participants are made aware what kind of (personal) data will be processed, how it will be used and for what purpose. In case of data acquired via a biobank/biorepository, it is possible they apply a broad consent which allows research participants to consent to a broad range of uses of their data and samples which is regarded by research ethics committees as specific enough to be considered “informed”. However, authors should always check the specific biobank/biorepository policies or any other type of data provider policies (in case of non-bio research) to be sure that this is the case.
Consent to Participate
For all research involving human subjects, freely-given, informed consent to participate in the study must be obtained from participants (or their parent or legal guardian in the case of children under 16) and a statement to this effect should appear in the manuscript. In the case of articles describing human transplantation studies, authors must include a statement declaring that no organs/tissues were obtained from prisoners and must also name the institution(s)/clinic(s)/department(s) via which organs/tissues were obtained. For manuscripts reporting studies involving vulnerable groups where there is the potential for coercion or where consent may not have been fully informed, extra care will be taken by the editor and may be referred to the SCI Index Research Integrity Group.
Consent to Publish
Individuals may consent to participate in a study, but object to having their data published in a journal article. Authors should make sure to also seek consent from individuals to publish their data prior to submitting their paper to a journal. This is in particular applicable to case studies.
Summary of requirements
The above should be summarized in a statement and placed in a ‘Declarations’ section before the reference list under a heading of ‘Consent to participate’ and/or ‘Consent to publish’. Other declarations include Funding, Competing interests, Ethics approval, Consent, Data and/or Code availability and Authors’ contribution statements.
Please see the various examples of wording below and revise/customize the sample statements according to your own needs.
Sample statements for “Consent to participate”:
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Informed consent was obtained from legal guardians.
Written informed consent was obtained from the parents.
Verbal informed consent was obtained prior to the interview.
Sample statements for “Consent to publish”:
The authors affirm that human research participants provided informed consent for publication of the images in Figure(s) 1a, 1b and 1c.
The participant has consented to the submission of the case report to the journal.
Patients signed informed consent regarding publishing their data and photographs.
Sample statements if identifying information about participants is available in the article:
Additional informed consent was obtained from all individual participants for whom identifying information is included in this article.
Authors are responsible for correctness of the statements provided in the manuscript. See also Authorship Principles. The Editor-in-Chief reserves the right to reject submissions that do not meet the guidelines described in this section.
Images will be removed from publication if authors have not obtained informed consent or the paper may be removed and replaced with a notice explaining the reason for removal.
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7 days
Time to first decision
170 days
Review time
200 days
Submission to acceptance
18 days
Acceptance to publication
aims & scope
Abstract
In the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR or Industry 4.0), vast amounts of data are generated from diverse sources such as the Internet of Things (IoT), cybersecurity, mobile devices, business operations, social media, and healthcare systems. Effectively analyzing this wealth of data to develop intelligent and automated applications requires expertise in artificial intelligence (AI), with machine learning (ML) at its core. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of various ML algorithms—including supervised, unsupervised, semi-supervised, and reinforcement learning—and highlights deep learning as a powerful subset capable of processing large-scale data. We discuss the foundational principles of these techniques and demonstrate their applicability across numerous real-world domains such as cybersecurity, smart cities, healthcare, e-commerce, and agriculture. Additionally, we identify key challenges and outline promising directions for future research. This study aims to serve as a valuable resource for researchers, industry professionals, and decision-makers seeking technical insights into leveraging machine learning for practical applications.
